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He showcased how blockchain could be used to help manage a large Western European railway construction project, bringing together the design company, along with steel suppliers and other numerous sub-contractors. For example, with a permanent record of the materials used in any building, companies could potentially reuse and not destroy them, reducing their carbon footprint.
He added that blockchain could reduce late payments — the bane of small and midsize businesses that make up the bulk of the construction industry. Bennett saw China moving ahead fastest, having made blockchain an integral part of its national infrastructure initiative. We do know that corporate purpose and trust are not feel-good, squishy ideals. The optimist in me likes to think the collective clamor for trust will grow, and a better future will happen faster than we dare hope.
Feature Article — Lost in the euphoric rise of upbeat digital growth predictions this year is a corresponding wave of people-first trends. Interesting fact. This message was laid in the first block of Satoshi Nakamoto, the creator of Bitcoin. Blockchain transaction. Since transactions in the blockchain are essentially operations with cryptocurrency , for example, Bitcoins, the structure of a transaction a sequence of digital signatures can be visualized as follows:.
The transaction hash is the instruction itself, it contains information about the amount of the transfer and where it goes. And most importantly, where did the money come from, which needs to be transferred, so the figure shows the arrows coming from the previous transaction. The signature of the participant is similar to the signature on the check, which with the help of the secret key confirms the authority of the user as the owner of the funds.
If the public key can be distributed to everyone, then the secret key should be kept with you. This key provides full access to account transactions.
It looks like a plastic card public key , it can be shown, even inserted into an ATM, however, you will need a PIN code secret key to withdraw money. Access control. Bitcoin blockchain is a publicly available network. This means that all participants in the system are equal and have equal access rights to the chain, which allow you to read information in the chain and add new blocks. That is, all users have full access to the chain.
Such networks are created when they want to achieve decentralization and transparency, for example, in financial transactions or real estate transactions. However, this is not always appropriate, since in reality the world is full of data whose distribution is undesirable.
An example is information about human health. Only the patient and people or organizations that the patient has granted access to, for example, relatives, individual doctors and hospitals, should have access to it. In such a scenario, only a trusted host can add information to the network and view it completely. Depending on who can become a full node, blockchains are divided into three types: centralized private , decentralized public and divided consortiums.
Visualization and characteristics of various approaches to building blockchains Centralized. The network is maintained and controlled by the central site. Only he has the right to check transactions and generate blocks.
This increases the speed of operations and management decisions, but makes the system unstable: any failure on the central node will bring down the entire system. Examples : Hyperledger is a blockchain for closed corporate solutions, Multichain is a platform for private blockchains. Features : more confidential and much faster than public networks; minimal transaction costs; simple transaction confirmation. Decentralized Description.
Controls and powers are diversified between equal validators. Any user can become a validator if he downloads the blockchain distribution. Freedom of entry and the presence of a reward for maintaining network performance makes the position of the validator popular, and the system less susceptible to failure, since disabling one node does not lead to a fall in the entire system.
Features : minimum fees; maximum speed. Consortiums Description. The system is managed and maintained by a separate group of privileged nodes. Reliability, speed and security is something between private and public blockchains.
This form of management is usually chosen by banks and large corporations. General information 2. Technical description 3. What's inside the block 4. How are the blocks connected to each other 5.
Genesis block 6. Blockchain transaction 7. The plausible applications of constructing microbial databases using blockchain technology is proposed in this paper. Nevertheless, the current challenges and constraints in the development of microbial databases using the blockchain module are discussed in this paper.
Implementation of blockchain for building and managing of the microbial databases is proposed. Continuous multicenter teledata deposition of microbial strains can be provided by the development of some platforms based on the blockchain concept. Tracing a specific thread of access for the purpose of evaluation or even the forensic will be possible in blockchain based database of bacteria. Mapping the microbial species diversity will become possible by using this concurrent data filling from different blocks.
Enrichment of the taxonomic database with the biotechnological application of the strains will be globally accelerated by this instant cooperative data deposition in blockchain-based architecture. Blockchain is a database with the capability of duplicating, sharing, and synchronizing data distributed through different physical places i. Nowadays, there is a tendency to ignite different non-financial fields by using the newly emerging computational tools of blockchain.
Recently, blockchain has been gradually used to handle multidimensional tasks in health care, assets, networking, electronic voting, etc. Nevertheless, factors such as block production rate, transaction speed, and block size, play a decisive role in the overall performance of the blockchain-based solutions [ 2 ].
A blockchain is a data infrastructure that retains and shares all transactions made since its inception. It is mainly a fragmented distributed database that keeps a list of gradually growing data records protected from manipulation and unauthorized access. In a blockchain, a user can connect to the network, create new blocks, submit new transactions, and confirm them. An encryption hash is assigned to each block i. If there are any changes in the block, the encryption hash changes quickly, causing changes in the data that may be due to illegal activity.
Thus, due to its solid foundations in cryptography, blockchain is gradually being employed to reduce unauthorized transactions in different fields [ 2 ]. The paper starts with the operational prerequisites of blockchain implementation, and the second section mentions the current non-financial fields of blockchain adaptation. The third section reveals the fundamental concepts of applying blockchain technology in the creation and management of microbial databases.
The fourth section elaborates on the supposed properties of the future microbial databases that will develop based on the blockchain platform. Subsequently, some added value of using blockchain in designing the microbial database is proposed.
In the last section, some challenges and limitations in implementing the blockchain for the purpose of building microorganism databases are discussed. The consensus layer is one of the essential layers in any blockchain-based system. This layer is created to maintain the reliability of the network, assuming that there are untrusted users.
Consensus algorithms are responsible for achieving an agreement of distributed systems on a certain amount of data. The role of consensus algorithms is to provide reliability in a network that could have unreliable nodes. Reliability is vital in distributed systems and databases. There are several consensus algorithms, and each one has its advantages and weaknesses. In public blockchains, usually, Proof of Work PoW or its extensions are used as consensus algorithms [ 1 ]. PoW refers to the calculation of the hash value of a block with the required number of main zeros by changing a random number.
This process is identified as mining, and it is a process with high processing or energy requirements. When a miner finds a valid node, broadcasts it to other nodes for verification. Consensus algorithms necessarily assume that some processes and systems are not available and that some communications will be lost.
Therefore, consensus algorithms must be designed to tolerate error. This is an open distributed ledger consist of records of data across many computers that are resistant to modifications. The networks of records blocks are linked using cryptography and each block contains a cryptographic hash and timestamp that link it to other blocks. A blockcain database is usually managed autonomousy using a peer-to-peer network collectively adhering to a protocol for inter-node interactions or confirming the creation of new blocks.
Therefore, features of this system that its block content cannot be modified retrospectively, without the alterations of all subsequent blocks. This allows the tracking the thread of data deposition and robust security. By using this technology of data deposit and sharing system, in addition to the decentralization that is favored in the globalization of the science, instant cooperative data deposition becomes possible.
The key specification of blockchain databases is that there is no central supervisor or centralized data storage mechanism. Instead, consensus algorithms manage the decentralized network [ 1 ] and no organizational authorities are required. Blockchain technology combines concepts such as peer-to-peer protocols, hashing algorithms, primary encryption, public-key encryption, and consensus algorithms.
A blockchain is based on a decentralized network which its main task is protecting stored lists of records against tampering.
The blocks in the blockchain are interconnected, forming a chain of blocks. All nodes are connected to a flat topology without a central reference or the main server.
This structure of the peer-to-peer network makes it completely decentralized [ 3 ]. A ledger is kept in the blockchain, where all committed transactions are stored in a list of blocks.
The chain develops as the new blocks are joined gradually. In a peer-to-peer network, a consensus mechanism is used to ensure that this block is valid before it is recorded in the ledger. After registering the block in the ledger, the entire network gets a copy of the updated ledger. Participants in the blockchain network are allowed to view the digital ledger, which is shared securely through the distributed computer network. All peer-to-peer network nodes access have peer-to-peer data and create an independent network to generate and share data between these nodes.
Afterward, the blockchain will be the only basis of its validation. Finally, knowing that in the court in China, it is possible to use the Chinese blockchain to validate documents in legal disputes [ 4 ], will ensure the security of the blockchain. The blockchain technology applied for the cryptocurrency is now being extended to other non-financial fields of technologies. This approach is penetrating to other disciplines that can be revolutionary for the usual way of data sharing the world is used to that.
Some unified aspects like an open way of data exchange, prevention of monopolies supervision, the secure validation processes of the transaction, etc. Based on a recent survey the majority of the journal publications describing the new application of blockchain technology has been in the field of Internet of Things IoT , energy, healthcare, finance, resource management, government, exchange, rights management, privacy, supply chain, etc.
Blockchain technology is employed mainly for sharing medical data in the last few years, and prototype tools for this purpose and companies to establish this infrastructure has emerged [ 6 ].
For instance, clinical trial data validation of a breast cancer drug was successfully conducted using a blockchain data system to verify the adherence to the protocol from distributed cloud server services [ 7 ].
The main disciplines in science that blockchain tools are developed so far for them is illustrated in Fig. Decentralization can remove the large flows of traffic to one node i. In blockchains, the entry, retrieval, and exchanges of data are validated and recorded by a timestamp. This property provides the users to trace the former records directly by access to any node of the network.
In regular centralized databases, a person or group owns it and can make changes to it or destroy information. All the transactions in public databases are transparent and tractable. The records of the activities can be made public so that they will be visible to all participants. Blockchain ensures the accuracy of the stored records because the same version of the historical ledger records is replicated and stored in the network nodes.
In addition, each case is approved by consensus. If fake inputs are entered, they will be detected and eliminated based on the consensus algorithm. Scalability is the ability to afford accommodation for the volume of work and provide storage space by increasing the number of strains or objects.
All pure and applied microbiology research area is impacted by the genetic and phenotype stability of the microorganisms being used as in the experiments either as the object of the study or the reference strains. This stability and reproducibility are needed to sustain productivity in biotech and pharmaceutical companies [ 8 ]. This genetic stability as a constant concern of the academia and industry is conserved by the prevention of microorganisms in Culture Collections CC.
Biological Resource Centers BRC are more comprehensive culture collections focused on supplying high-quality resources not limited to reproducible cells into biotechnology research and development. Reproducibility of the biotechnological exploitation of microbial sources is warranted by the proper long-term preservation of these cells in CCs or BRCs. Using the blockchain approach in the creation or expansion of a microbial database will remove the hurdles associated with the centralized data entry of a vast number of samples.
There are some other microbial databases which have been constructed by other organization rather than collections or their consortia. For insatance, the construction of the comprehensive database of BacDive demanded manual insertion of strain characteristics from papers in the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology [ 9 ].
Although, such species descriptive papers only provide data of type strains and not all the species and strains. There is still not a prototype of a blockchain-based microbial database available to the public. There are two main plausible ways by which microbial databases can benefit from blockchain technology:.
Microbial databases can leverage blockchain capabilities to achieve integrity, and non-repudiation which are essential for the microbial reference databases. In this paper, we suggest implementing a public blockchain infrastructure while minimizing the corresponding monetary cost for building a microbial database.
We propose a blockchain-based microbial data collection system demonstrated in Fig. The blockchain mode can assist in building a pool of biological data by creating a unique address for labs, institutes, etc.
Our Smart Contracts come up with the completely automated process that eliminates the need for the middlemen to carry out the audits associated with the process.
These smart contracts present themselves with the extreme degree of precision. Cryptocurrency Exchange Development is largely benefitted through our Blockchain development services. The Cryptocurrency Exchanges thus developed are made to work in a decentralized manner, avoiding the approval from the third party to be operated upon. Our Blockchain development services act as the tertiary backbone of the Cryptocurrency Exchange Development process. Cryptocurrency Wallets can preferably aid the desiring features of the Cryptocurrency Exchange scripts.
Our Blockchain Development Services create an exclusive wallet operating on a decentralized approach to carry out the transactions. Blockchain powered wallets are provided with extreme degree of security and transparency to transactions.
Scalability is Not choice, it is must. Fintech is not a platform where we can make trail and error, so we are bullseye in architecture and scalability of the product before and after delivery. Through our Blockchain Development Service, we extend our degree of services supporting multiple industries requiring high degree of precision through participation.
Our quality of service is an unavoidable feature in the future and derivative trades promoting a large degree of Leads to the targeted clients. Our Blockchain can impart a considerable amount of revenue to the customers through optimal usage. We can develop, deploy and manage business software solutions for various industries using blockchain technology which offers complete security, scalable and transparency at every step of the business journey. Supply chain monitoring is a complex process and would require a high degree of precision and care in execution.
Exchange of necessities takes place in this particular phase of transaction. Blockchain can effectively provide solutions to the complexity involved in this by giving rise to a smart monitoring system, to monitor supply chain. The Blockchain technology aids the finance sector with safe and secure asset transfer through the use of dedicated ledger or a wallet secured by a pro-level pass key. Also, Blockchain Technology finds use in numerous domains that include, Beyond Border asset transfer, Digital ID Tracking, Blockchain powered payment gateways, Customer profile management, and Insurance claim management.
Customer credentials are dynamic and would require a secure and stable platform for information handling. Blockchain provides solutions through its Decentralization, immutability and improved privacy control. IPFS protocols are designed to transfer a large number of desired files on a dedicated interface, the addition of Blockchain into the frameworks largely contribute to the speed, security, scalability and immutability of the specified IPFS Platforms.
Blockchain allows for the multi-node management during transaction of assets. Entire conventional voting system is brought into numerous Smart Contracts through the inclusion of Blockchain technology. These Smart Contracts are implemented in different stages of election and provide time efficient taking place of the legislation process.
Blockchain can be of proficient use to the education sector. The outcomes of Blockchain implementation include Digital learning platform, E-scripts covering exam syllabus, Student and faculty attendance ledgers, Student performance e-charts, Educating students through cognitive ability platform.
Health is one another sector that seeks large scale intervention from Blockchain technology to impart quality degree of service to the patients. Blockchain can integrate a large number of people through its frameworks.
Blockchain can create a certain specific community based on the domain the people interoperate upon, integration takes place by the development of specific platforms on the social media to bind with people.
The Manufacturing industry comes out with challenges including less transparency and low accountability due to the complexities involved in the manufacturing process, these factors can very well be cleared through the use of Blockchain providing a very well structured organization. Blockchain technology reduces the malfunctions brought to the trade involved in the logistics sector. The Blockchain Technology abolishes the mismatch of organizational skills, pre-planning, delayed transactions and limited use cases.
The Blockchain technology can contribute to the reputation of the quality of service delivered. Blockchain development services will largely contribute to the interlinking between the corresponding buyer and seller without brokerage. Both buyer and seller on enrolling themselves with the dedicated ledger powered by Blockchain can carry out trade, either buy or sell without involving any intermediates.
Blockchain allows for the transfer of entitlements including the transfer of ownership, transfer of proprietorship and other official transfer of authorities in line with the government associated projects, through an ardent and authenticated portal carrying out the transfer related queries. Maticz offers you Blockchain and Cryptocurrency Business Software Services that remain on par with the globally existing solutions and offer competence with them.
Our Software services are free from venturing hack attacks and offer optimal features with optimization attributes. The optimization attribute accounts for the interoperability and scalability of our offered service. We Maticz, the pioneer Blockchain and Crypto solution provider, has an innovative set of developers having in-depth knowledge of the core concepts relating to the Blockchain based queries and delivering products with seamless security and scalability.
We also provide post product delivery assistance 24x7 through our ardent admin panel. Our skilled sets of analysts actively monitor the market and avail the end users with the excellent and everlasting set of solutions that compete with the globally existing solutions.
Connect on Whatsapp Connect With Telegram. We have expertise in various cutting-edge technologies. Our software solution are engineered ,architect and developed based on solid goal of Automation. In practical use, the blockchain is considered as a secure, infinite journal of financial or other transactions that can be used for monetary transactions and practically everything that has a formal value.
The safety of the technology is due to three factors: distribution register; cryptographic encryption; consensus algorithm. This is a cryptological most important task, the successful solution of which should ensure the stability of the system in the conditions of internal competition and the likely "betrayal" of its participants. Technical description The basis of the blockchain technology in distributed information storage - the network database is not stored on shared servers, but on millions of computers located in different parts of the planet.
There are two types of participants in the blockchain network: Full nodes validators or miners. Participants nodes that verify the authenticity of data by matching records of new transactions with previous ones.
Simple nodes they are ordinary members, users. Regular participants perform financial or other transactions, such as transferring money. The transaction record amount, recipient's address, commission is sent to the blockchain network, where it is already considered a transaction. In the course of their activities, validators form new blocks from the accumulated queue of transactions made by users.
A block is an aggregated data set, a container that aggregates transactions for inclusion in a distribution registry. Data is collected and processed for block placement using a process called mining. The speed at which the block is created and the number of transaction records it may contain depends on the specific blockchain.
A block in such a structure can be identified using a cryptographic hash also known as a digital fingerprint - an algorithm a secret key, or a hash key for encrypting data using cryptography. Data is decrypted by using the same key or another, also generated using cryptography. Thus, all data can be linked through a linked list structure. Visualization of communication of blocks through hash The sequence of hashes, as a rule, creates a single chain of blocks , which stretches to the very first block ever created - the genesis block.
This, in turn, changes the hash of the subsidiary block itself, which, in turn, changes the links in the previous block, which, in turn, changes the hash of its previous block, and so on This cascade effect ensures that if the network has many generations, then it cannot be changed hacked without changing all subsequent blocks, since this requires the use of huge computational power.
Or, in other words, the longer the block chain , the safer the system. What's inside the block. The block consists of a header Head containing metadata.
Next comes a long list of transactions Payload , which occupies most of the total volume of the block. So, at the start, the Bitcoin block could accommodate more than transactions, since it was 80 bytes now the size is larger , and the transactions required bytes each. Visualization of dividing a block into a header and transaction data The contents of the blocks that were attached to the chain cannot be changed or deleted. In general, any change in data for example, on transfers of cryptocoins in the Bitcoin network in the blockchain is impossible in principle.
The system only allows you to add new blocks that summarize the final "balance" of information. This is an important blockchain feature that ensures the security of asset history , for example, the history of transactions on the Bitcoin network. At the same time, the blockchain is much more reliable than any ledger or any banking register of operations, since, as already noted, copies of the blockchain are stored on many computers servers. To crack such a network, you need to take control of more than half of the complete nodes of the system.
For example, in the case of Bitcoin, this means that millions of users' computers need to be hacked. How are the blocks connected to each other Block content The block header contains the following information: hash of the block header; hash of the parent block; hash of all transactions recorded in the block; date and time of block creation; parameters bits and nonce; block version.
The block header hash is what connects the previous block, followed in the blockchain chain. It is written to the next block as a hash code in the header of the parent block. The header also contains the transaction hash of the current block. It is calculated using an algorithm known as the Merkle tree or binary hash tree. Merkle tree structure At the bottom level of the tree, each transaction has a node that contains its hash value.
After that, the tree is built in such a way that the parent node has the value of the hash of the data contained in its subsidiary elements, connecting together. The Merkle tree data structure allows for a quick check by building a tree path from the lower level to the root node. Since each transaction output can only be carried out once while it is consumed, it can be removed from the tree structure using certain clipping algorithms.
Thus, it is possible to reduce disk space usage without affecting the check function. They also saw blockchain-enabled electronic voting eventually emerging. Eight percent of jurisdictions worldwide will test systems by Plagued for decades by low productivity gains due to siloed, complex supply chains, the construction industry is fertile ground for blockchain experimentation. He showcased how blockchain could be used to help manage a large Western European railway construction project, bringing together the design company, along with steel suppliers and other numerous sub-contractors.
For example, with a permanent record of the materials used in any building, companies could potentially reuse and not destroy them, reducing their carbon footprint. He added that blockchain could reduce late payments — the bane of small and midsize businesses that make up the bulk of the construction industry.
Bennett saw China moving ahead fastest, having made blockchain an integral part of its national infrastructure initiative.
Science and Technology
His passion is software engineering especially when security in blockchain. The Cryptocurrency Exchanges thus developed are made to work in a decentralized manner, avoiding the approval from the blockchain party to be operated upon. A blockchain is based security a decentralized network which its main task is protecting development lists of records against tampering. They have developed development blockchain solutions for growth blockchain and Fortune companies like Allianz and Cisco. Describe how we can help you. Each blockchain chain security starts from at least one block, and since the blockchain block is encoded statically in the client software of development blockchain this is its starting pointit cannot be modified.
Secure your blockchain solutions
Blockchain if the trust gets broken? We strongly recommend that blockchain review the solutions that you design and architect against development blockchain security model to ensure that all measures are in place to adequately secure your blockchain solutions. This security stability as a constant concern of the academia and industry is conserved by the prevention of microorganisms development Culture Collections CC. Decentralized Network Decentralization can remove the large security of traffic to one node i. It can also be downloaded here for Windows and Mac OS users, development blockchain security.
Blockchain Supply Chain Development
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We deal with three parameters: release automation, service virtualization and application performance management. Our Successful DevOps implementations generally rely on an integrated set of solutions to remove manual steps, reduce errors and scale beyond small, isolated teams. Our services enable continuous delivery for any combination of on-premises, cloud and mainframe applications by eliminating manual, error-prone processes.
Our understanding of your enterprise and Business landscape and our ready solution like Uberclone, FoodieApp, Airbnb,help to achieve tangible business results. Blockchain Development Services Blockchain Development Services that meet your business needs through our qualitative and quantitative degree of service.
We at Maticz derive and develop a definite set of solutions to various Blockchain related queries. Blockchain Consulting Services Our Blockchain Consulting Services aim at providing the users with the use case analysis answering the questions Why? Enterprise Blockchain Solutions We intend to integrate the Blockchain concept into the existing enterprise solutions to level up the trade taking place in the present. DApps Development We develop DApps which are specific applications performing the Blockchain based service orientations which work primarily on the phenomenon of Decentralization.
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Token Development Scalability is Not choice, it is must. Blockchain Supply Chain Management Through our Blockchain Development Service, we extend our degree of services supporting multiple industries requiring high degree of precision through participation. Blockchain Software solutions for various Industries We can develop, deploy and manage business software solutions for various industries using blockchain technology which offers complete security, scalable and transparency at every step of the business journey.
Blockchain Industry Verticals We Serve Supply Chain Supply chain monitoring is a complex process and would require a high degree of precision and care in execution.
Free Demo. FinTech The Blockchain technology aids the finance sector with safe and secure asset transfer through the use of dedicated ledger or a wallet secured by a pro-level pass key.
IPFS IPFS protocols are designed to transfer a large number of desired files on a dedicated interface, the addition of Blockchain into the frameworks largely contribute to the speed, security, scalability and immutability of the specified IPFS Platforms. Voting Entire conventional voting system is brought into numerous Smart Contracts through the inclusion of Blockchain technology.
Education Blockchain can be of proficient use to the education sector. Health Care Health is one another sector that seeks large scale intervention from Blockchain technology to impart quality degree of service to the patients. Blockchain backed Platforms Blockchain can integrate a large number of people through its frameworks.
Manufacturing The Manufacturing industry comes out with challenges including less transparency and low accountability due to the complexities involved in the manufacturing process, these factors can very well be cleared through the use of Blockchain providing a very well structured organization.
Logistics Blockchain technology reduces the malfunctions brought to the trade involved in the logistics sector. Real Estate Blockchain development services will largely contribute to the interlinking between the corresponding buyer and seller without brokerage.
Government Records Blockchain allows for the transfer of entitlements including the transfer of ownership, transfer of proprietorship and other official transfer of authorities in line with the government associated projects, through an ardent and authenticated portal carrying out the transfer related queries. Blockchain and Cryptocurrency Business Software Services Maticz offers you Blockchain and Cryptocurrency Business Software Services that remain on par with the globally existing solutions and offer competence with them.
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Technologies We Use We have expertise in various cutting-edge technologies. Android, Kotlin Kotlin is official language to develop android. React Native Hybrid developmennt. Development Tools Solidity and Web3. Framework OpenZepplin and Truffle. E-Chain E-Chain is a tamper proof, Scalable platform engineered with blockchain for e-commerce businesses to manage their inventory more efficiently.
The technology eliminates the necessity for businesses to invest in other resources to track and monitor stocks Business owners who are looking to expand their ventures should embrace this E-chain development and redefine the way they work.
Aside from being faster and considerably cheaper, some of the competitive advantages this E-chain offers include total control on the supply chain for improved efficiency and amped-up pricing for increased profit Tags E-chain Digital Marketing Cloud Native On-demand Sevices Blockchain. Digital marketing Our team of digital marketer first analyze a business, its websites, its target users and its goals and based on that, come up with a suitable digital marketing strategy.
Devops We deal with three parameters: release automation, service virtualization and application performance management. Our Successful DevOps implementations generally rely on an integrated set of solutions to remove manual steps, reduce errors and scale beyond small, isolated teams Our services enable continuous delivery for any combination of on-premises, cloud and mainframe applications by eliminating manual, error-prone processes Tags E-chain Digital Marketing Cloud Native On-demand Sevices Blockchain.
Visualization of dividing a block into a header and transaction data The contents of the blocks that were attached to the chain cannot be changed or deleted. In general, any change in data for example, on transfers of cryptocoins in the Bitcoin network in the blockchain is impossible in principle. The system only allows you to add new blocks that summarize the final "balance" of information. This is an important blockchain feature that ensures the security of asset history , for example, the history of transactions on the Bitcoin network.
At the same time, the blockchain is much more reliable than any ledger or any banking register of operations, since, as already noted, copies of the blockchain are stored on many computers servers. To crack such a network, you need to take control of more than half of the complete nodes of the system. For example, in the case of Bitcoin, this means that millions of users' computers need to be hacked. How are the blocks connected to each other Block content The block header contains the following information: hash of the block header; hash of the parent block; hash of all transactions recorded in the block; date and time of block creation; parameters bits and nonce; block version.
The block header hash is what connects the previous block, followed in the blockchain chain. It is written to the next block as a hash code in the header of the parent block.
The header also contains the transaction hash of the current block. It is calculated using an algorithm known as the Merkle tree or binary hash tree. Merkle tree structure At the bottom level of the tree, each transaction has a node that contains its hash value.
After that, the tree is built in such a way that the parent node has the value of the hash of the data contained in its subsidiary elements, connecting together.
The Merkle tree data structure allows for a quick check by building a tree path from the lower level to the root node. Since each transaction output can only be carried out once while it is consumed, it can be removed from the tree structure using certain clipping algorithms. Thus, it is possible to reduce disk space usage without affecting the check function.
It works like this: First, hashes of all transactions are calculated. Then the sum of all hashes of transaction pairs is calculated.
Further are calculated the hashes of the sum of the received pairs of hashes, and so on, following the same scheme until a single hash is received, which will be the transaction hash in the block. Headers allow you to track the integrity of the content of the blocks themselves. As mentioned earlier, the Bitcoin network blockchain is a database that records and stores information about transactions of virtual coins bitcoins.
In digital currency, new transactions through Inputs one or more refer to Outputs one or more of previous transactions and form Outputs also one or more for use in the next transactions. Transaction C has links to two input transactions - A and B. As a result, at the entrance to transaction C we have 0. Balance 0. The first blockchain block is called a genesis block. In the Bitcoin network, such a block was created in , it is the common predecessor of all the blocks in this ecosystem.
This means that if you select any block and trace the chain back in time, you will eventually come to the block of genesis. Each blockchain chain always starts from at least one block, and since the genesis block is encoded statically in the client software of any blockchain this is its starting point , it cannot be modified. The following hash corresponds to the genesis block of the Bitcoin network:.
Or this if you use the basic Bitcoin Core client with the Windows command line :. Interesting fact. This message was laid in the first block of Satoshi Nakamoto, the creator of Bitcoin. Blockchain transaction. Since transactions in the blockchain are essentially operations with cryptocurrency , for example, Bitcoins, the structure of a transaction a sequence of digital signatures can be visualized as follows:.
The transaction hash is the instruction itself, it contains information about the amount of the transfer and where it goes.
And most importantly, where did the money come from, which needs to be transferred, so the figure shows the arrows coming from the previous transaction. The signature of the participant is similar to the signature on the check, which with the help of the secret key confirms the authority of the user as the owner of the funds. If the public key can be distributed to everyone, then the secret key should be kept with you.
This key provides full access to account transactions. It looks like a plastic card public key , it can be shown, even inserted into an ATM, however, you will need a PIN code secret key to withdraw money. Access control. Bitcoin blockchain is a publicly available network. This means that all participants in the system are equal and have equal access rights to the chain, which allow you to read information in the chain and add new blocks.
That is, all users have full access to the chain. Such networks are created when they want to achieve decentralization and transparency, for example, in financial transactions or real estate transactions. However, this is not always appropriate, since in reality the world is full of data whose distribution is undesirable. An example is information about human health.
Only the patient and people or organizations that the patient has granted access to, for example, relatives, individual doctors and hospitals, should have access to it. In such a scenario, only a trusted host can add information to the network and view it completely.
Depending on who can become a full node, blockchains are divided into three types: centralized private , decentralized public and divided consortiums. Visualization and characteristics of various approaches to building blockchains Centralized. The network is maintained and controlled by the central site. Only he has the right to check transactions and generate blocks.
This increases the speed of operations and management decisions, but makes the system unstable: any failure on the central node will bring down the entire system. Examples : Hyperledger is a blockchain for closed corporate solutions, Multichain is a platform for private blockchains. Features : more confidential and much faster than public networks; minimal transaction costs; simple transaction confirmation.
Decentralized Description. Controls and powers are diversified between equal validators. Any user can become a validator if he downloads the blockchain distribution. Freedom of entry and the presence of a reward for maintaining network performance makes the position of the validator popular, and the system less susceptible to failure, since disabling one node does not lead to a fall in the entire system.
How does a blockchain work - Simply Explained
The Merkle tree data structure allows for a quick check by building a tree path from the lower level to the root node. Since each transaction output can only be carried out once while it is consumed, it can be removed from the tree structure using certain clipping algorithms. Thus, it is possible to reduce disk space usage without affecting the check function.
It works like this: First, hashes of all transactions are calculated. Then the sum of all hashes of transaction pairs is calculated. Further are calculated the hashes of the sum of the received pairs of hashes, and so on, following the same scheme until a single hash is received, which will be the transaction hash in the block.
Headers allow you to track the integrity of the content of the blocks themselves. As mentioned earlier, the Bitcoin network blockchain is a database that records and stores information about transactions of virtual coins bitcoins. In digital currency, new transactions through Inputs one or more refer to Outputs one or more of previous transactions and form Outputs also one or more for use in the next transactions. Transaction C has links to two input transactions - A and B.
As a result, at the entrance to transaction C we have 0. Balance 0. The first blockchain block is called a genesis block. In the Bitcoin network, such a block was created in , it is the common predecessor of all the blocks in this ecosystem. This means that if you select any block and trace the chain back in time, you will eventually come to the block of genesis. Each blockchain chain always starts from at least one block, and since the genesis block is encoded statically in the client software of any blockchain this is its starting point , it cannot be modified.
The following hash corresponds to the genesis block of the Bitcoin network:. Or this if you use the basic Bitcoin Core client with the Windows command line :. Interesting fact. This message was laid in the first block of Satoshi Nakamoto, the creator of Bitcoin. Blockchain transaction. Since transactions in the blockchain are essentially operations with cryptocurrency , for example, Bitcoins, the structure of a transaction a sequence of digital signatures can be visualized as follows:.
The transaction hash is the instruction itself, it contains information about the amount of the transfer and where it goes. And most importantly, where did the money come from, which needs to be transferred, so the figure shows the arrows coming from the previous transaction.
The signature of the participant is similar to the signature on the check, which with the help of the secret key confirms the authority of the user as the owner of the funds.
If the public key can be distributed to everyone, then the secret key should be kept with you. This key provides full access to account transactions. It looks like a plastic card public key , it can be shown, even inserted into an ATM, however, you will need a PIN code secret key to withdraw money.
Access control. Bitcoin blockchain is a publicly available network. This means that all participants in the system are equal and have equal access rights to the chain, which allow you to read information in the chain and add new blocks. That is, all users have full access to the chain. Such networks are created when they want to achieve decentralization and transparency, for example, in financial transactions or real estate transactions.
However, this is not always appropriate, since in reality the world is full of data whose distribution is undesirable. An example is information about human health. Only the patient and people or organizations that the patient has granted access to, for example, relatives, individual doctors and hospitals, should have access to it.
In such a scenario, only a trusted host can add information to the network and view it completely. Depending on who can become a full node, blockchains are divided into three types: centralized private , decentralized public and divided consortiums. Visualization and characteristics of various approaches to building blockchains Centralized. The network is maintained and controlled by the central site. Only he has the right to check transactions and generate blocks.
This increases the speed of operations and management decisions, but makes the system unstable: any failure on the central node will bring down the entire system.
Examples : Hyperledger is a blockchain for closed corporate solutions, Multichain is a platform for private blockchains. Features : more confidential and much faster than public networks; minimal transaction costs; simple transaction confirmation. Decentralized Description. Controls and powers are diversified between equal validators. Any user can become a validator if he downloads the blockchain distribution.
Freedom of entry and the presence of a reward for maintaining network performance makes the position of the validator popular, and the system less susceptible to failure, since disabling one node does not lead to a fall in the entire system.
Features : minimum fees; maximum speed. Consortiums Description. The system is managed and maintained by a separate group of privileged nodes. Reliability, speed and security is something between private and public blockchains. This form of management is usually chosen by banks and large corporations.
General information 2. Technical description 3. What's inside the block 4. How are the blocks connected to each other 5. Genesis block 6. Blockchain transaction 7. Access control 8. Centralized 9.
Decentralized For instance, clinical trial data validation of a breast cancer drug was successfully conducted using a blockchain data system to verify the adherence to the protocol from distributed cloud server services [ 7 ].
The main disciplines in science that blockchain tools are developed so far for them is illustrated in Fig. Decentralization can remove the large flows of traffic to one node i. In blockchains, the entry, retrieval, and exchanges of data are validated and recorded by a timestamp.
This property provides the users to trace the former records directly by access to any node of the network. In regular centralized databases, a person or group owns it and can make changes to it or destroy information. All the transactions in public databases are transparent and tractable. The records of the activities can be made public so that they will be visible to all participants.
Blockchain ensures the accuracy of the stored records because the same version of the historical ledger records is replicated and stored in the network nodes. In addition, each case is approved by consensus. If fake inputs are entered, they will be detected and eliminated based on the consensus algorithm.
Scalability is the ability to afford accommodation for the volume of work and provide storage space by increasing the number of strains or objects. All pure and applied microbiology research area is impacted by the genetic and phenotype stability of the microorganisms being used as in the experiments either as the object of the study or the reference strains.
This stability and reproducibility are needed to sustain productivity in biotech and pharmaceutical companies [ 8 ].
This genetic stability as a constant concern of the academia and industry is conserved by the prevention of microorganisms in Culture Collections CC. Biological Resource Centers BRC are more comprehensive culture collections focused on supplying high-quality resources not limited to reproducible cells into biotechnology research and development.
Reproducibility of the biotechnological exploitation of microbial sources is warranted by the proper long-term preservation of these cells in CCs or BRCs. Using the blockchain approach in the creation or expansion of a microbial database will remove the hurdles associated with the centralized data entry of a vast number of samples. There are some other microbial databases which have been constructed by other organization rather than collections or their consortia.
For insatance, the construction of the comprehensive database of BacDive demanded manual insertion of strain characteristics from papers in the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology [ 9 ]. Although, such species descriptive papers only provide data of type strains and not all the species and strains. There is still not a prototype of a blockchain-based microbial database available to the public.
There are two main plausible ways by which microbial databases can benefit from blockchain technology:. Microbial databases can leverage blockchain capabilities to achieve integrity, and non-repudiation which are essential for the microbial reference databases. In this paper, we suggest implementing a public blockchain infrastructure while minimizing the corresponding monetary cost for building a microbial database. We propose a blockchain-based microbial data collection system demonstrated in Fig.
The blockchain mode can assist in building a pool of biological data by creating a unique address for labs, institutes, etc. In this scheme, the microbial data, including images, physiological traits, sequences, chemotaxonomical data, etc. The sequence of 16S RNA or genome must be defined as the mandatory data required for strain data deposition in each block while some other characteristics such as biochemical or morphological data could be assigned as the optional fields which are not essentially required for deposition in a block while remain amenable to completion by the time when additional data will be available for the strains.
The overall features of blockchain for microbial databases developed based on the blockchain technology can be considered as transparancy, auditability, veracity and scalibility. Scalability of the microbial databases is of importance as the predicted species of just bacteria surpass one million species while there are multiple of this value of different strains at the lower taxonomic level of species ie.
Around Therefore, there is still a lot of microbial physiology waiting to be discovered and biobanked [ 10 ]. Below are some supposed features that the blockchain-based databases of microorganisms can possess and the privileges that can be obtained by implementing this technology in the management of the microbial data for CC, BRCs, or research or industry institutes and individuals are summarized in the below subsections.
Modifications in original data inserted by the institute managing the database are prohibited in all current databases of microorganisms. When the user with approved identity has the permission to add more characteristic information of the strains, the metadata of the strain will be more enriched as the complementary data on each strain will be discovered by the time during different research projects at various parts of the world.
In addition, the scattered reports on webpage, reports, papers, etc. Therefore, the huge dispersed data can be deposited in an integrated database either public, partially encrypted to the defined users, or fully encrypted by cryptographically signing the data. By establishing such integrated databases, the same conditions for global development, and the progress of technologies related to the microbial resources will be provided to all scientists. Moreover, the meta-analysis of such collected big data can itself lead to an additional interpretation that can be beneficial to reveal the usage pattern of the strains at a global level.
Such a disruptive way of data sharing can affect the rate of the species data exchange between academia and industry.
In accordance, the interaction will increase the advancement in microbial biotechnology. The intrinsic trait of transparency in the map of the exchanged data, itself provides an accurate conclusion on the existing flow of the knowledge in this field of science between participants and counterparts.
In sharing data under a blockchain format, not only the data deposition, and exchange can be monitored, even the access, and view and of the sensitive data can also be controlled. The blockchain-based systems can also be set in such a way to allow only part of these biotechnological data at a defined charge to be accessible for profit-making users such as private biotechnological or pharmaceutical companies.
Among all, project data management will ultimately be affected sooner or more extensively by blockchain technology. Encrypted information in the blockchain-structured databases can be shared between researchers or institutes without limitations or interventions.
The shared network is scalable and can proceed without the need for any verification process dictating from a third party. Although all data entry, retrieval, or exchanges are immutable, certain credentials can be adjusted to modulate the full access to the content of each block.
Therefore, data will be unhackablly maintained online. For instance, the privileged access to some part of the database can be stratified between different groups that are involved in the microbiology projects. The blockchain-based platforms can have the possibility in which researchers and industry can exchange early outcomes of the projects. These disperse database connection support uploading both confidential and public results of the research in the blocks. By the verification of the data depositor in each block, the biotechnological potential of the microorganism will be date-stamped for that researcher.
The associated data such as raw lab measurements, electron micrographs, spectra, related SOPs, graphs, tables, genomic sequences, etc. The project collaborators involved in a microbial project from all over the world can add even further online amendment or create sub-block with appending data to the already existing data in each block. Among the core features of the culture collections is having a mechanism to secure their assets, the physical security of holdings, and the privacy of the associated data of the strains.
The mechanism employed in the blockchain tools, is to create an ultra-secure system for the storage of scattered data. The risk associated with the centralized system is resolved by cybersecurity associated with the distributed blocks. The digital forensics, in case of rare occurrence is repudiation free due to the transparency of the committed IP.
The security of the strain supply chain is the concern of the national and international bodies which is often resolved by limiting the distribution of the strain with BSLs higher than BSL2.
This is not sufficient as bacteria from BSL 1, and 2 also have the dual-use potential or can be manipulated in a lab equipped with even minimum or medium technologies. Moreover, computing servers used by microbial databases can be hijacked for other purposes, even cryptocurrency mining or other malicious purposes [ 11 ]. Each country has its own national policies and legislation on international exploitation of its genetic resources including the microorganisms. The adherence of the research entities to these regulations n acquisition, conservation, utilization and data sharing of microbial resources currently cannot be properly audited.
However, monitoring the deviation from these national regulations is currently challenging and not properly possible. By employing the blockchain approach, due to their intrinsic trait of immutability, adhering to these regulations can be monitored by the authorities with a higher accuracy.
This demands the approval of more than half of participants that inevitably make any changes to each particular block automatically by kind of verification process. Although, this inevitable authentication process will bring along the integrity, clarity, and creditability in the data deposition.
Additionally, the possibility of data breach when needed is estimated to rather zero in case of applying a blockchain approach. Another concern is that although blockchain technology seems to be an emerging novel type of database curation in all disciplines as well as Microbiology, decentralized blockchain technology delete the necessity of trusted intermediaries for data exchange of the strains.
The third main concern is that the distribution of the strains or data by blockchain systems may not comply with international conventions and regulations like Nagoya Protocol. The entities that are involved in data sharing will not have to follow the classic way of hierarchical permission bureaucracies and is in a manner of consensus-driven that, in some cases, may violate the national or international regulations. Some other limitation of recruiting blockchain-based database management is privacy concerns, off-chain transactions, loss of discretion and arbitration challenges and distrust of the technology due to lack of adoption [ 12 ].
Some other constraints of applying the blockchain format database building for microbial data can be summarized as:. Although blockchain emerged as a kind of Fintech, it is penetrating many other fields to deliver a similar service to what it has in the financial transaction system. Here we discussed the data curation practices in BRCs or CCs that can be subjected to blockchain-based architecture.
The labor of data entry can be mitigated by cooperative data insertion from different users. The origin of the inserted information will be clear and recognizable. At the same time, the direct in situ deposition of the strain data act as repositories for the protection of intellectual property. As the accuracy of all the predictions based on machine learning algorithms depends on the size of the microbial database [ 13 ], attaining a more comprehensive database will lead to a more precise computational analysis of the microbial debases using machine learning tools.
In the case of the incentivization of key stakeholders such as WFCC and ECCO, these tools can be developed to initiate the decentralized and synchronized type of data sharing. The massive burden of data entry and curation of the culture collections can turn into a lighter task for these service centers if the blockchain-based microbial database comes into existence. Furthermore, since the billions of the investment required for strain exploitation, phenotypic, and genotypic analysis, letting the data integration from distributed blocks dramatically can decrease the cost of adding value to the strain data repositories.
Nonetheless, unique policies need to be decided based on a consensus of the majorities, to legislate the formation of such scalable specified databases for the strain characteristics.
Some guidelines for maintaining the biosecurity is formally announced for the BRCs [ 14 ], however still not sufficiently applicable in all culture collections. With the advance of synthetic biology and the availability of whole genomes data, there has been increasing concern on open access to such sequences in the microbial or genomic databases.
By using a database constructed based on the blockchain algorithms, the access and users of pathogenic microorganisms data can be identified. Additionally, in the case of emerging new pathogenic strains or viruses, its associated data can be shared globally without national restrictions through recording in the blocks by individual scientists early enough to diminish the rate of dissemination and morbidities such as what happened in the recent COVID pandemic.
The reliability and real-time update of the data are an essential part of the future advance in all parts of science and technology. As there has been introducing some prototype tools designed based on the blockchain technology for medical data sharing, we expect some data-sharing tools to be developed between culture collections across the world based on the blockchain concept. Using the decentralized validation of the strains exchanges, such functions can be accelerated and also be traced flawlessly in case of any illegal exchange.
This type of data sharing can dramatically increase the amount of associated data for each stain and overall increase the transparency of the strain movement in the academy and industry. Following the implementation of blockchain technology for constructing the microorganism database and emerging some prototype, some real constraints and privileges of this type of database for the microbiology field building will be revealed in practice. FM: content and writing; HS: correction and edition. Both authors have read and approved the manuscript.
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